Changing Market Environment - 1642 Words

Changes in the Marketing Environment and its Implications The word â€Å"Marketing† refers to an activity that is strategically concerned with the management of relationship among an organization and environment. Environment could be described as an internal and external condition to an organization. Internal Environment consists of situational factors that are present within the organizational boundaries whereas external environment consists of any factors or conditions that are not under the control of an organization. Internal Environment creates strengths or weaknesses for a firm, however external environment may create opportunities or threats. Over the past some years, a significant change in external environment has been happened. In†¦show more content†¦They were more rigid. However, today consumers want change, they want to experience new things, and much more flexible. These are some of the reasons of fashionisatin and erosion of brands. All these things are demanding more change in the marketing environment. Earlier, all businesses produce goods and then market them broadly to the general public without considering the needs of specific consumers in the market. However, in the current situation companies are adopting more targeted approach. In this regard, they advertise and market their product primarily to their target market. Companies now are increasing their reliance on niche marketing and specialization which is also refers to micro market. This phenomenon of micro market is creating change in the marketing environment and possessing challenge to the marketer. Change in the marketing environment also comes from the product life cycle. As product moves from one stage to another, a change occurs. In the earlier and middle stages of the product, companies try to differentiate their products which help them to charge premiums from the customers. However, in the later stages of the product, commoditization happens. Commoditization is a concept which reduces the differentiation. Reduction in the differentiation would results in the shrinkage of profit margins. Generally, companies do not want to commoditize and strives to prolong the middleShow MoreRelatedThe Long Term Goals Of A Business1725 Words   |  7 Pagesexternal factors creates a firm’s business strategy. It is necessary for a firm to analyse and respond to the competitive environment due to the constantly changing nature outside the business. The competitive environment can be defined as the market in which the business trades against its competitors, with similar products or services, with the aim of gaining the largest market share using a competitive strategy. Jay Barney, an advocate of the resource based strategy, stated that â€Å"Firms obtainRead MoreUnderstanding The Benefits Of Strategic Management1674 Words   |  7 Pagesstrategic management emphasizes long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must rapidly adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another concept that is introduced in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. The importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter with respect to an example using the strugglingRead MoreThe Long Term Performance And Operational Success Of A Firm1691 Words   |  7 Pagesit is important for the long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another major concept that is explained briefly in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus on what is important, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. Importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter with respect to an exampleRead MoreTaking a Look at the Banking Industry1648 Words   |  7 Pagesinter-related pressures of eight key areas in banking industry: ï‚Ÿ Having a new reality Environment The external environment has been affect by . there are several market insight attracts the banking . firstly, the rising of asia market, it has been expected having the massive fund and wealth transfer in the next decade, also, the generation demographic effects plays an important role in market external environment such as Women segment on the rise, Young Rich: +40% HNWI are 45 yrs old or youngerRead MoreDynamic Capability Concept Of Strategic Management872 Words   |  4 Pagesbuild, reconfigure and integrate external and internal competencies in order to manage the rapidly changing environment. This concept is an extension of the Resource Base View in the context of its ability to adapt to change in technology. The ability of an organization to attain competitive advantage in the market is subject to innovation. Dynamic capability is unique because of competitive market position and path dependency. The Concept of Dynamic Capability Business organizations are composedRead MoreOrganizational Structure And Management Process Essay1630 Words   |  7 Pagessuccess in any business is how effectively it can compete in finding new opportunities and having the internal structure necessary to compete in different markets and business environments. Management also has challenges and faces pressures from the outside business world and has to understand markets, current market trends and anticipate how markets and industries will perform in the future. Management and the structure of an organization are an integral part of creating the model for any businessRead MoreDiscuss how the six macro-environments (demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and social/cultural) forces may affect the marketing of a drink or food company.1421 Words   |  6 PagesDiscuss how the six macro-environments (demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and social/cultural) forces may affect the marketing of a drink or food company. Companies and their suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customers, competitors, and publics all operate in a macro-environment of forces and trends that shape opportunities and pose threats. Within the rapidly changing global picture, the firm must monitor six major forces: demographic, economic, natural, technologicalRead MoreUnderstanding The Benefits Of Strategic Management1625 Words   |  7 Pagesstrategic management emphasizes long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must rapidly adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another concept that is introduced in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. The importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter using the example of a struggling retailerRead MoreDiscuss the Marketing Environment1583 Words   |  7 PagesThe Marketing Env ironment consists of a complex set of interacting forces and influences outside the marketing department of an organization. The Marketing Environment affects the organizations ability to build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with its target customers. Through continuous monitoring its Marketing Environment a company must be able to anticipate change and act in a pro active way rather than leaving it to a reactive reaction. It must also keep up to date by realizingRead MoreEastman Kodak1070 Words   |  5 PagesEASTMAN KODAK For many years, Eastman Kodak had a virtual monopoly in film production. This market power resulted in large profits. It also permitted Kodak to control the timing for introducing new products to the marketplace and responding to changes in consumer demands. By the 1980s, Kodak s market environment had changed materially. The Fuji Corporation produced high-quality film that eroded Kodak s market share. Increased competition also came from generic store brands. In addition, the 1980s

The First Christian Books - 577 Words

The First Christian Books The New Testament was first written down and circulated in the form of letters between the various regions that the early Christians had spread to. Paul was instrumental in the first establishment of letter carrying between Jesus disciples and others. It is said that the Church thanks to Pauls escaped slave, Onesimus, preserved Pauls collection of letters. (Houseandhome.org, 2012) It was very common during the Roman Empire to have slaves, and they were often treated as near equals in terms of intellect and importance to the household. The early church was slow to write the New Testament, largely because Jesus had not written down any of his own teachings. Therefore oral accounts had to be collected from all around the world, and recounted in as accurate of a format as possible. The first books were written in Hebrew and Aramaic, although as Christianity spread, Greek played a larger part. Finally, the texts were translated into Latin, about the same time that Christianity was spreadi ng to Rome. The Bible was first organized from Jewish canon, namely in the Torah. This is where thirty different contributors to the Bible are from, with the other ten contributors in the New Testament. The Torah is far older than the New Testament, and is recognized as being Gods will, as opposed to the New Testament which is a collection of opinions on the life of Jesus. Some branches of Christianity believe that the teachings of the New Testament are Gods willShow MoreRelatedAnalysis: How the First Christian Books Were Written Collected and Preserved1321 Words   |  5 PagesAnalysis of How the First Christian Books Were Written, Collected, and Preserved It is no secret that Scripture was written by Christs disciples but tradition tells us that it is the inspired word of God. Scripture itself has been handed down to us through the centuries by the Christian Church. It was the early Church, founded by Jesus Christ (as the Bible itself illustrates), which first gathered all the books of the Bible and gave its authoritative pronouncement that these books were the inspiredRead MoreThe Rise Of Christianity By Don Nardo1737 Words   |  7 Pageslegal in Rome in 313 AD and the Nicene Creed was created and made the official statement of Christian beliefs in 325 AD. Also the investigation will focus mainly on events taken place in Rome. Unity, or lack thereof, in Christianity, events before and after the creation of the Nicene Creed, and how people first reacted to the Nicene Creed are the areas the investigation will follow. Reading through books and databases will be how research for this investigation will be found and notecards will beRe ad MoreThe Book Christian Mind By Harry Blamires902 Words   |  4 Pagesrefused to believe that Jesus was alive unless he reach out his hand into Jesus’ side (John 20:24-25). 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Through imagery, aeons and the high creator are placed with each other to form realms in â€Å"The Secret Book According to John† reflecting the book of Genesis. â€Å"The Secret Book According to John† is like a backstoryRead MoreA Comparison Of The Tanach And Bible1380 Words   |  6 Pagespractice such as food, interpretation of the commandments and how a Torah is used in a synagogue. STRUCTURE OF EACH CANON The Bible is known as ‘authoritative written source’ (Bowley, 1999) and is a library of 66 books and is made of two parts: Old Testament (39 books) and New Testament (27 books). The Bible was only officially put together around the third century. The Old Testament was written in Hebrew and Aramaic while the New Testament was written in Greek. During the Reformation, scholars wantedRead MoreThe Counsel Of Heaven On Earth Essay1596 Words   |  7 Pages倀倀ODUCTION The Counsel of Heaven on Earth is a book written by Ian F. Jones on the topic of Christian counseling. 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Barriers to Democratization in China Free Essays

string(105) " era was mainly shaped by the shifting balance of power between the central government and local forces\." This article presents and enlightens the rationale for the failure of China in establishing a democratic system. Such topic is broad and extensive apparently because it attempts to explain the natural flow of democratization with relation to China that has yet to establish a democratic system. This also endeavors to enhance the understanding of democratization process on a certain country. We will write a custom essay sample on Barriers to Democratization in China or any similar topic only for you Order Now The whole presentation of barriers to Chinese democratization is divided into phases and provides analytical framework in the further understanding of the nature of democratization process. Such phases are consisting of several factors which serve as the subordinate topics in demonstrating the impacts of these factors on Chinese democratization. Chinese Democratization Chinese democratization is of immense importance, both practically and theoretically. Although it is only one country, China represents between one-fifth and one-fourth of the world’s population. According to Rummel (1991), â€Å"due to the undemocratic systems in twentieth-century China, millions suffered from political persecution and died unnatural deaths. † For example, more than twenty million starved to death in the famine of 1959–61. As late as 1989, hundreds of unarmed civilians were mowed down in the capital city of Beijing. Democracy may not work miracles, but it can avoid such tragedies (Rummel 1991). Presenting Barriers to Chinese Democracy I. Historical Legacy and Democracy This part of the article presents the assessment of the potential impact of historical legacy on the process of democratization in China. The general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions go under this first factor. It initially looks at how some general conditions constrain Chinese political development and compares political thoughts with modern democracy and examines the way democratic or undemocratic Chinese political traditions were. Historical legacies are not of equal importance. Some are trivial and transitory, such as people’s dress. Others are substantial and stable, such as people’s ways of treating one another. Modern democracy resulted from the interaction between Western traditions and modernization. Given China’s different historical path and its low level of modernization, its democratization process was in the grip of its historical legacies. By focusing on general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions, this chapter suggests that China’s historical legacies pose a challenge to the democratization process. The vast territory and diverse conditions always create problems for governability and participation in traditional times. A long history tends to foster a cynical view of politics, just as a short history may facilitate an idealistic view of politics. A huge population not only decreases people’s incentive for participation, but also renders it difficult to change the rules of the game. China’s relative isolation from the West cost the Chinese the opportunity to learn from a great and dynamic civilization. All these forms formidable force of inertia that slows down and even blocks attempts to adopt new systems and habits in China. Indeed, few Western thoughts before the modern time were democratic, but the Athenian political and intellectual experiences, the Roman conception of citizenship and law, and Christianity’s conception of humanity did facilitate democracy as we know it today. By contrast, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, and Taoism contained some democratic elements, but none qualified as being democratic because of their failure to advocate popular sovereignty and individual liberty. As the dominant ideology in China, Confucianism was paternalistic in preaching benevolence and propriety. Despite its good intentions, its differences from democracy were huge. Kant’s remark that paternalism is the worst form of tyranny contains some truth. What further separates China from the West is their political traditions. Feudalism had dominated the West for a long time. It was characterized by its lack of equality, liberty, and a powerful central government. It deserves mentioning that not until the early 1860s were serfdom and slavery abolished in Russia and the United States, respectively. Against this historical background, the middle class in the West not only demanded equality and freedom denied by feudal systems, but also attempted to limit the rising power of the central government after the decline of feudalism. By contrast, traditional China witnessed a great deal of socioeconomic equality and freedom. Chinese political and economic systems allowed for a high level of social mobility. So the call for freedom and equality appealed less to the Chinese than to the Europeans. Compared with its European counterparts, the Chinese government was powerful. Theoretically, all the land and people belonged to the emperor. But China’s vast territory and traditional technology softened the impact of a bureaucratic empire. There were both enlightened and despotic rulers in Chinese history. When tyranny accompanied socioeconomic hardship, the Chinese exercised their right of rebellion. As a result, Chinese history seemed to be trapped in a â€Å"dynastic cycle. † Without modernization and foreign contacts, China might have found it difficult to break this cycle. II. Local Forces and Democracy During the second half of the 19th century, China experienced the decline of central power in contrast to the rise of many countries like the U. S. , Italy, and Prussia. In particular, the Taiping Rebellion which endured from 1851-64 had affected almost all the provinces in China proper, devastated its most prosperous regions, and had cost 20 to 40 million people dead. What further undermined the central power was the Nien Rebellion in the north from 1851 to 1868, the Miao Rebellion in the southwest from 1855 to 1872, and the Moslem Rebellion in the northwest from 1862 to 1878. Collectively, these are referred to as local forces that decisively affect the democratization process in the Republican era. The establishment of the republic did not imply that the Chinese were willing or able to maintain democracy. Before the 1911 Revolution, most Chinese had no preference for democratic republicanism, and those who advocated democracy treated it less as an end than as a means to national power and wealth. But the revolution ruled out the possibility of establishing a new monarchy in China and ushered in the era of republicanism. The entire Republican era was mainly shaped by the shifting balance of power between the central government and local forces. You read "Barriers to Democratization in China" in category "Papers" Since the mid–nineteenth century, foreign powers and local forces had undermined the Manchu regime. During the 1911 Revolution, the independence of provinces doomed the Qing dynasty. Since the local forces continued to threaten the new republic, a strongman was needed to rule China. Yuan Shih-kai’s fight against disintegration served national interests and commanded widespread support. But his monarchical scheme discredited him, and his death created an opportunity for the rise of warlordism. During the warlord period, the central government not only lost control of local forces, but also was manipulated by powerful warlords. Against this background, the Nationalists cooperated with the Soviet Union to achieve national unification. The rise of local forces was nothing new in China. With its vast territory, regional diversity, and traditional technology, the empire always faced the danger of division. Since the respective authorities of central and local governments were not clearly defined, the central government might have too much or too little power. On balance, the former was a lesser evil than the latter. While rational rulers had little intention to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs, the lack of legitimacy motivated local satraps to maximize their profits. The Chinese fear of local forces appeared unwarranted in the eyes of foreigners, but it constituted a self-fulfilling prophecy. Idealizing a unitary system, many Chinese leaders would resort to violence and war for the sake of national unification. Accordingly, the fear of local forces led to war, which in turn justified people’s original fear. If the establishment of the new republic had little to do with the Chinese people’s democratic conviction, partisan conflict, domestic turmoil, and civil wars in the Republican era made the Chinese disillusioned with democracy. Indeed, democracy does not necessarily weaken state power, and no real democracy was put into practice in China. But there is no denying that the early phase of democratization tends to unleash divisive forces. Through legitimating diverse interests democracy risks undermining the central power. Historical examples abound. A weak confederation followed the American Revolution. Fortunately, the founding fathers opted for a federal system, which struck a balance between central and local powers. Like many other countries, post-Revolution China experienced chaos and civil wars. The Revolution was intended to strengthen state power, but contributed to its further decline. The painful experience in the Republican era convinced the Chinese that a weak and divisive country needed a strong government, and that dictatorship represented a lesser evil than anarchy. III. World System and Democracy All countries have been dragged into the world system in the contemporary times. Unfortunately, this foreign system is unbeneficial to weaker countries and a monster that is beyond their control. It is no exaggeration, as Toynbee (1969) declares, to say that their modern history is one of their responses to foreign challenges. Before the end of World War II, China was one of the disadvantaged countries having deplorable status in the effect of world system’s adversity to democratization processes. Without the modern world system, democratization might not have become an issue in China. However, such a system militated against the process of democratization in the Nationalist era in several ways. First, the nature of the world system was undemocratic, if not antidemocratic. What characterized this system was power politics and capitalism. The former treated might as right; the latter sought profits and ignored equality. To survive in such a world required a strong state, but not necessarily a democratic one. Given China’s low status in the world, the Chinese desired wealth and power rather than democracy. In fact, the Chinese accepted democracy, less because they embraced the value itself than because they saw it as a method to strengthen the state power. Second, liberal democracy was less attractive than it is today. Internal disturbance and foreign threats in 1930s provided the best justification for dictatorship. No wonder that the Nationalist government and many Chinese intellectuals found dictatorship both necessary and desirable. Third, the Japanese aggression made the Chinese democratization almost irrelevant. Indeed, the Sino-Japanese War facilitated partisan cooperation, stimulated Chinese nationalism, and helped democratize the world system. But amid foreign aggression, national survival took precedence over the call for democracy and human rights. Equally important, the war catapulted the Communists into formidable power and exacerbated socioeconomic problems the Nationalists had never been able to handle. As a result, a democratic solution to China’s political, economic, and social problems became difficult, if not impossible. Lastly, the Cold War system affected Chinese political development. The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II and the expansion of socialism into East Europe boosted the reputation of socialism in comparison with liberal democracy. Both superpowers wanted to increase their own influence in China and sided with either the Nationalists or the Communists. It was no exaggeration to say that the evolution of the world system made possible the Communist triumph. IV. Socialist Values and Democracy Although the Mao era did well in promoting socioeconomic equality and deserved credit for encouraging mass participation, socialist China did not qualify as democracy as we know it. The one-party rule excluded the possibility for citizens to select rulers. Civil and political rights were ignored, if not flagrantly violated. The house-registration system and class label contravened the principles of liberty and equality. Millions suffered from political persecution. Even among the party itself, powerful struggles were frequent and cruel. What was worse, the Communists did not deliver on their own material promise. Living standards in Maoist China barely increased. In explaining the lack of democracy in China, one cannot ignore the role of Mao. It was Mao who hastened the socialist transformation, led the AntiRightists Campaign, initiated the Great Leap, encouraged the people’s communes, reversed the sensible guidelines of the Eighth Congress, and launched the Cultural Revolution. Without him, Chinese socialism would have taken different shape. But even without him, there would have been little chance for socialist China to be democratic. Authors like Berger (1993) and Almond (1991) believe that â€Å"the reality is that although countries with market economies have not necessarily been democratic, all democracies have coexisted with market economies†. Advocates of socialism see no contradiction between socialism and democracy. Ralph Miliband, for example, maintains that â€Å"socialist democracy would embody many of the features of liberal democracy, including the rule of law, the separation of powers, civil liberties, political pluralism, and a vibrant civil society, but it would give them much more effective meaning. It would seek the democratization of the state and of society at all levels (Miliband p. 117). This theoretical possibility has not yet translated into reality. C. B. MacPherson is more sophisticated in arguing that although existing socialist countries do not guarantee political freedom, this does not imply that socialism inevitably conflicts with democracy. He attributes the socialist failure in this respect to three specific factors. According to MacPherson (1973), â€Å"socialist countries were established in underdeveloped countries; they faced the hostility of Western powers; and their birth in revolution or civil war entailed the restriction of freedom. † The conflict between socialism and democracy cannot merely be explained by historical circumstances, but should be explained by the nature of both socialist revolution and the socialist system. By aiming at abolishing private property, socialist revolution inevitably invites the strongest opposition from all ruling and propertied classes. As a result, socialists have to rely on violence to achieve their objective. Moreover, many scholars, like Belden (1949) and Talmon (1960) find the socialist preference for collective over individual rights to be at the root of totalitarianism. As early as 1848, Tocqueville stated that â€Å"democracy extends the sphere of individual freedom; socialism restricts it. Democracy attaches all possible value to each man; socialism makes each man a mere agent, a mere number. Democracy and socialism have nothing in common but one word: equality. But notice the difference: as quoted in Hayek (1972) that â€Å"while democracy seeks equality in liberty, socialism seeks equality in restraint and servitude. † The dictatorship of the proletariat may intend to serve the vast majority of the people, but it bodes ill for democracy and human rights. Lenin defines dictatorship as â€Å"nothing more or less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force† (Lenin p. 353). Socialists’ emphasis on class character ignores humanity and individuality, and their call for class struggle damages the social fabric. By dehumanizing class enemies, they tolerate and even extol the abuse of human rights. Not least of all, even if socialist rulers are well intentioned, a socialist economy provides the best pedestal for despotism. Public ownership and planned economy enable an all-powerful state to control people’s livelihood, to limit their freedom, and to foster their passivity and fear. V. Economic Development and Democracy Deng Xiaoping’s Era Deng’s reform policy was less political democratization than economic development. Nevertheless, close relations between these two processes determined that he had an important role to play in the process of democratization (Shambaugh 1995). Economic development and political democratization are both desirable, but they sometimes compete and even conflict with each other. Deng’s preference for economic development over political democratization was understandable. Human beings are more economic animals than political ones. Democracy appeals less to poor people in poor countries, and Deng’s political liberalization further decreased the Chinese desire for democracy. Deng first instituted the responsibility system in the countryside and later abolished the commune system. At the same time, he did his best to integrate China into the outside world. The success in rural reform shifted Deng’s attention to urban reform. Despite its limitations, the economic reform increased the people’s living standard, boosted the private sector, substituted a market economy for a planned economy, and internationalized the Chinese economy. All these had positive impacts on democratization, because they reduced the state power over the society, expanded an autonomous economic realm, decreased the elite’s interest in seeking political power, and motivated better-off and better-educated people to demand more freedom and rights. Economic reforms, however, could not be deepened without political reform. Twice Deng wanted to institute political reforms, but they fell short of expectations. Deng never embraced liberal democracy. For him, democracy represented a means to economic development. When it jeopardized stability and unity, it would be abandoned. But Deng’s political reform received less credit than it deserves. Elections were permitted at local levels. Legal reforms moved China closer to the rule of law. With his administrative reform, old cadres gradually gave way to new technocrats. Although the Chinese did not enjoy positive freedom to participate in government affairs, they were granted negative freedom in their social and economic life. In short, Deng’s political reform represented a change in system rather than a change of system, and was characterized not by democratization but by liberalization and institutionalization. Deng’s economic reform was a two-edged sword, providing more legitimacy to the Communist rule, and causing social unrest and public protests. The 1989 Tiananmen Incident reflected and reinforced the legitimacy crisis. The mass protests originated from people’s dissatisfaction with their economic situations and social injustice, but did not mean that they wanted to overthrow Communist rule. Although the repression temporarily stabilized the situation, the legitimacy crisis became much severer. Like most authoritarian rulers, Deng had no choice but to rely on further economic development to regain legitimacy. Since then, Chinese leaders and people have followed the East Asian model, putting development before democratization. Conclusion All of the above factors presented are apparently legitimate and convincing when it comes to the realities happening in China. These barriers are enough to provide answers to the issue of China democratization. This presentation provides knowledge with such potential factors and significantly deepens our knowledge of the nature of democratization process in a selected country. References Almond, Gabriel. â€Å"Capitalism and Democracy,† in PS: Political Science and Politics. September 1991: pp. 467–74. Belden, Jack. China Shakes the World. New York: Harper, 1949: p. 504. Berger, Peter. â€Å"The Uncertain Triumph of Democratic Capitalism,† in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited. Ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993: p. 3. Hayek, Friedrich. The Road to Serfdom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972: p. 25. Lenin, â€Å"A Contribution to the History of the Question of the Dictatorship. † in Collected Works, 31 (n. d. ): p. 353. MacPherson, C B. Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973: pp. 151–52. Miliband, Ralph. â€Å"The Socialist Alternative,† in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited. Ed. Diamond and Plattner, p. 117. Rummel, R J. China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991. Shambaugh, David, ed. Deng Xiaoping: Portrait of a Chinese Statesman. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Talmon, Jacob. The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy. New York: Praeger, 1960. How to cite Barriers to Democratization in China, Papers

Revisiting the Error in Studies of Cognitive Errors

Question: Write a summary on revisiting the Error in studies of cognitive errors? Answer: The given article has been a real eye opener for a person like me who has always been a staunch believer of logic. While I always assumed without question that it is logic only which is objective and above linguistic and semantic barriers, the claims made in the article clearly question the underlying objectivity of logic as an all pervasive judgement tool. The article relates logic with human perception and since in perception there are always judgement errors due to the innate subjectivity, hence it also logically leads to subjectivity in logic which is disturbing to some extent. This is primarily because something (logic) which I have assumed to be infallible and open to interpretation is essentially a subjective phenomenon which depends on the circumstances and perception. The concept of good judgement errors is also engaging especially with the example of Post-It as it aims to establish that judgement errors are all too pervasive and thus need to be better understood. The author has also questioned the link of logic with rationality and in this manner questioned the relationship which I have innately assumed to be true because of the empirical instances regarding of the co-existence of the two. Further using data, the author also seems to question the impact of making representations differently on the way the information derived from these talks is eventually processed leading to multiple variants. Using the Wason selection task, it is apparently clear that logic is infallible and more importantly so subjective that makes it difficult to predict provided proper modelling has not been done. While the author reluctantly decides to assume that logic is free from the effect of semantics and representations but then is able to defy the same using valid arguments. The underlying cause for the same is convincing since it is attributed to the different manners in which information is processed by different human beings in different ways and hence the same information may lead to varied judgements and to call just one judgement as being correct and the remaining ones as being fallacious or dubious is a rather presumptive assumption. This idea actually appeals to me as I have seen in numerous instances when discussing something with friends, the conclusion they draw from a piece of information may be starkly different from mine but at the same time they may have an underlying logic as st rong as mine because essentially logic is a subjective thing which cannot be assumed to so objective as we see. I particular like the stance the author takes in the sense he is not against the existence of logic but the obsession with its objectivity and the biases and errors during its application. Further the obsession with logic as has been advocated by the author actually in counter-productive for the proponents of logic since during their application of logic with scant regard to the context and semantics has resulted in judgement bias being induced in their works. This is made apparent from the various interpretations of the overconfidence bias. I was surprised to learn about the better than average interpretation provided by the author as to how commonly we assume that the underlying distribution is symmetric and additionally it never comes to our mind (including mine) that the average we define for most is highly subjective and so is the final conclusion. Additionally the idea that relates overconfidence with narrow intervals and probabilistic distribution also are quite convincing and have forced me to avoid committing these errors in my life. Further the miscalibration bias introduced as interpretation of overconfidence is also intriguing since it clearly shows our casual usage of percentages and other quantification techniques without necessarily adhering to a uniform calibrating scale. Also from my experience, I now can say that we tend to over rely on these percentages and their underlying logic and subjectivity. In order to reduce these biases, the author has suggested usage of absolute risk rather than relative risk which makes sense since relative risk increases the level of subjectivity involved in the interpretation since no objective baseline is present. Further an ecological view of error is presented on the basis of findings of the research which make sense since logic should not be seen in isolation as a universal yardstick and instead it should be customised as per the content which enables it to maintain its underlying objectivity. Hence it becomes imperative to focus on the way things are presented and logic is applied so that the judgement errors are minimised.