Changing Market Environment - 1642 Words

Changes in the Marketing Environment and its Implications The word â€Å"Marketing† refers to an activity that is strategically concerned with the management of relationship among an organization and environment. Environment could be described as an internal and external condition to an organization. Internal Environment consists of situational factors that are present within the organizational boundaries whereas external environment consists of any factors or conditions that are not under the control of an organization. Internal Environment creates strengths or weaknesses for a firm, however external environment may create opportunities or threats. Over the past some years, a significant change in external environment has been happened. In†¦show more content†¦They were more rigid. However, today consumers want change, they want to experience new things, and much more flexible. These are some of the reasons of fashionisatin and erosion of brands. All these things are demanding more change in the marketing environment. Earlier, all businesses produce goods and then market them broadly to the general public without considering the needs of specific consumers in the market. However, in the current situation companies are adopting more targeted approach. In this regard, they advertise and market their product primarily to their target market. Companies now are increasing their reliance on niche marketing and specialization which is also refers to micro market. This phenomenon of micro market is creating change in the marketing environment and possessing challenge to the marketer. Change in the marketing environment also comes from the product life cycle. As product moves from one stage to another, a change occurs. In the earlier and middle stages of the product, companies try to differentiate their products which help them to charge premiums from the customers. However, in the later stages of the product, commoditization happens. Commoditization is a concept which reduces the differentiation. Reduction in the differentiation would results in the shrinkage of profit margins. Generally, companies do not want to commoditize and strives to prolong the middleShow MoreRelatedThe Long Term Goals Of A Business1725 Words   |  7 Pagesexternal factors creates a firm’s business strategy. It is necessary for a firm to analyse and respond to the competitive environment due to the constantly changing nature outside the business. The competitive environment can be defined as the market in which the business trades against its competitors, with similar products or services, with the aim of gaining the largest market share using a competitive strategy. Jay Barney, an advocate of the resource based strategy, stated that â€Å"Firms obtainRead MoreUnderstanding The Benefits Of Strategic Management1674 Words   |  7 Pagesstrategic management emphasizes long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must rapidly adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another concept that is introduced in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. The importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter with respect to an example using the strugglingRead MoreThe Long Term Performance And Operational Success Of A Firm1691 Words   |  7 Pagesit is important for the long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another major concept that is explained briefly in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus on what is important, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. Importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter with respect to an exampleRead MoreTaking a Look at the Banking Industry1648 Words   |  7 Pagesinter-related pressures of eight key areas in banking industry: ï‚Ÿ Having a new reality Environment The external environment has been affect by . there are several market insight attracts the banking . firstly, the rising of asia market, it has been expected having the massive fund and wealth transfer in the next decade, also, the generation demographic effects plays an important role in market external environment such as Women segment on the rise, Young Rich: +40% HNWI are 45 yrs old or youngerRead MoreDynamic Capability Concept Of Strategic Management872 Words   |  4 Pagesbuild, reconfigure and integrate external and internal competencies in order to manage the rapidly changing environment. This concept is an extension of the Resource Base View in the context of its ability to adapt to change in technology. The ability of an organization to attain competitive advantage in the market is subject to innovation. Dynamic capability is unique because of competitive market position and path dependency. The Concept of Dynamic Capability Business organizations are composedRead MoreOrganizational Structure And Management Process Essay1630 Words   |  7 Pagessuccess in any business is how effectively it can compete in finding new opportunities and having the internal structure necessary to compete in different markets and business environments. Management also has challenges and faces pressures from the outside business world and has to understand markets, current market trends and anticipate how markets and industries will perform in the future. Management and the structure of an organization are an integral part of creating the model for any businessRead MoreDiscuss how the six macro-environments (demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and social/cultural) forces may affect the marketing of a drink or food company.1421 Words   |  6 PagesDiscuss how the six macro-environments (demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and social/cultural) forces may affect the marketing of a drink or food company. Companies and their suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customers, competitors, and publics all operate in a macro-environment of forces and trends that shape opportunities and pose threats. Within the rapidly changing global picture, the firm must monitor six major forces: demographic, economic, natural, technologicalRead MoreUnderstanding The Benefits Of Strategic Management1625 Words   |  7 Pagesstrategic management emphasizes long-term performance and operational success of a firm. A firm must rapidly adapt to the changing market and technological environment is another concept that is introduced in the chapter. Strategic management provides a clear sense of strategic vision for the firm, sharper focus, and an improved understanding of a rapidly changing environment. The importance of innovation is another important concept explained in the chapter using the example of a struggling retailerRead MoreDiscuss the Marketing Environment1583 Words   |  7 PagesThe Marketing Env ironment consists of a complex set of interacting forces and influences outside the marketing department of an organization. The Marketing Environment affects the organizations ability to build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with its target customers. Through continuous monitoring its Marketing Environment a company must be able to anticipate change and act in a pro active way rather than leaving it to a reactive reaction. It must also keep up to date by realizingRead MoreEastman Kodak1070 Words   |  5 PagesEASTMAN KODAK For many years, Eastman Kodak had a virtual monopoly in film production. This market power resulted in large profits. It also permitted Kodak to control the timing for introducing new products to the marketplace and responding to changes in consumer demands. By the 1980s, Kodak s market environment had changed materially. The Fuji Corporation produced high-quality film that eroded Kodak s market share. Increased competition also came from generic store brands. In addition, the 1980s

The First Christian Books - 577 Words

The First Christian Books The New Testament was first written down and circulated in the form of letters between the various regions that the early Christians had spread to. Paul was instrumental in the first establishment of letter carrying between Jesus disciples and others. It is said that the Church thanks to Pauls escaped slave, Onesimus, preserved Pauls collection of letters. (Houseandhome.org, 2012) It was very common during the Roman Empire to have slaves, and they were often treated as near equals in terms of intellect and importance to the household. The early church was slow to write the New Testament, largely because Jesus had not written down any of his own teachings. Therefore oral accounts had to be collected from all around the world, and recounted in as accurate of a format as possible. The first books were written in Hebrew and Aramaic, although as Christianity spread, Greek played a larger part. Finally, the texts were translated into Latin, about the same time that Christianity was spreadi ng to Rome. The Bible was first organized from Jewish canon, namely in the Torah. This is where thirty different contributors to the Bible are from, with the other ten contributors in the New Testament. The Torah is far older than the New Testament, and is recognized as being Gods will, as opposed to the New Testament which is a collection of opinions on the life of Jesus. Some branches of Christianity believe that the teachings of the New Testament are Gods willShow MoreRelatedAnalysis: How the First Christian Books Were Written Collected and Preserved1321 Words   |  5 PagesAnalysis of How the First Christian Books Were Written, Collected, and Preserved It is no secret that Scripture was written by Christs disciples but tradition tells us that it is the inspired word of God. Scripture itself has been handed down to us through the centuries by the Christian Church. It was the early Church, founded by Jesus Christ (as the Bible itself illustrates), which first gathered all the books of the Bible and gave its authoritative pronouncement that these books were the inspiredRead MoreThe Rise Of Christianity By Don Nardo1737 Words   |  7 Pageslegal in Rome in 313 AD and the Nicene Creed was created and made the official statement of Christian beliefs in 325 AD. Also the investigation will focus mainly on events taken place in Rome. Unity, or lack thereof, in Christianity, events before and after the creation of the Nicene Creed, and how people first reacted to the Nicene Creed are the areas the investigation will follow. Reading through books and databases will be how research for this investigation will be found and notecards will beRe ad MoreThe Book Christian Mind By Harry Blamires902 Words   |  4 Pagesrefused to believe that Jesus was alive unless he reach out his hand into Jesus’ side (John 20:24-25). 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Through imagery, aeons and the high creator are placed with each other to form realms in â€Å"The Secret Book According to John† reflecting the book of Genesis. â€Å"The Secret Book According to John† is like a backstoryRead MoreA Comparison Of The Tanach And Bible1380 Words   |  6 Pagespractice such as food, interpretation of the commandments and how a Torah is used in a synagogue. STRUCTURE OF EACH CANON The Bible is known as ‘authoritative written source’ (Bowley, 1999) and is a library of 66 books and is made of two parts: Old Testament (39 books) and New Testament (27 books). The Bible was only officially put together around the third century. The Old Testament was written in Hebrew and Aramaic while the New Testament was written in Greek. During the Reformation, scholars wantedRead MoreThe Counsel Of Heaven On Earth Essay1596 Words   |  7 Pages倀倀ODUCTION The Counsel of Heaven on Earth is a book written by Ian F. Jones on the topic of Christian counseling. 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Barriers to Democratization in China Free Essays

string(105) " era was mainly shaped by the shifting balance of power between the central government and local forces\." This article presents and enlightens the rationale for the failure of China in establishing a democratic system. Such topic is broad and extensive apparently because it attempts to explain the natural flow of democratization with relation to China that has yet to establish a democratic system. This also endeavors to enhance the understanding of democratization process on a certain country. We will write a custom essay sample on Barriers to Democratization in China or any similar topic only for you Order Now The whole presentation of barriers to Chinese democratization is divided into phases and provides analytical framework in the further understanding of the nature of democratization process. Such phases are consisting of several factors which serve as the subordinate topics in demonstrating the impacts of these factors on Chinese democratization. Chinese Democratization Chinese democratization is of immense importance, both practically and theoretically. Although it is only one country, China represents between one-fifth and one-fourth of the world’s population. According to Rummel (1991), â€Å"due to the undemocratic systems in twentieth-century China, millions suffered from political persecution and died unnatural deaths. † For example, more than twenty million starved to death in the famine of 1959–61. As late as 1989, hundreds of unarmed civilians were mowed down in the capital city of Beijing. Democracy may not work miracles, but it can avoid such tragedies (Rummel 1991). Presenting Barriers to Chinese Democracy I. Historical Legacy and Democracy This part of the article presents the assessment of the potential impact of historical legacy on the process of democratization in China. The general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions go under this first factor. It initially looks at how some general conditions constrain Chinese political development and compares political thoughts with modern democracy and examines the way democratic or undemocratic Chinese political traditions were. Historical legacies are not of equal importance. Some are trivial and transitory, such as people’s dress. Others are substantial and stable, such as people’s ways of treating one another. Modern democracy resulted from the interaction between Western traditions and modernization. Given China’s different historical path and its low level of modernization, its democratization process was in the grip of its historical legacies. By focusing on general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions, this chapter suggests that China’s historical legacies pose a challenge to the democratization process. The vast territory and diverse conditions always create problems for governability and participation in traditional times. A long history tends to foster a cynical view of politics, just as a short history may facilitate an idealistic view of politics. A huge population not only decreases people’s incentive for participation, but also renders it difficult to change the rules of the game. China’s relative isolation from the West cost the Chinese the opportunity to learn from a great and dynamic civilization. All these forms formidable force of inertia that slows down and even blocks attempts to adopt new systems and habits in China. Indeed, few Western thoughts before the modern time were democratic, but the Athenian political and intellectual experiences, the Roman conception of citizenship and law, and Christianity’s conception of humanity did facilitate democracy as we know it today. By contrast, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, and Taoism contained some democratic elements, but none qualified as being democratic because of their failure to advocate popular sovereignty and individual liberty. As the dominant ideology in China, Confucianism was paternalistic in preaching benevolence and propriety. Despite its good intentions, its differences from democracy were huge. Kant’s remark that paternalism is the worst form of tyranny contains some truth. What further separates China from the West is their political traditions. Feudalism had dominated the West for a long time. It was characterized by its lack of equality, liberty, and a powerful central government. It deserves mentioning that not until the early 1860s were serfdom and slavery abolished in Russia and the United States, respectively. Against this historical background, the middle class in the West not only demanded equality and freedom denied by feudal systems, but also attempted to limit the rising power of the central government after the decline of feudalism. By contrast, traditional China witnessed a great deal of socioeconomic equality and freedom. Chinese political and economic systems allowed for a high level of social mobility. So the call for freedom and equality appealed less to the Chinese than to the Europeans. Compared with its European counterparts, the Chinese government was powerful. Theoretically, all the land and people belonged to the emperor. But China’s vast territory and traditional technology softened the impact of a bureaucratic empire. There were both enlightened and despotic rulers in Chinese history. When tyranny accompanied socioeconomic hardship, the Chinese exercised their right of rebellion. As a result, Chinese history seemed to be trapped in a â€Å"dynastic cycle. † Without modernization and foreign contacts, China might have found it difficult to break this cycle. II. Local Forces and Democracy During the second half of the 19th century, China experienced the decline of central power in contrast to the rise of many countries like the U. S. , Italy, and Prussia. In particular, the Taiping Rebellion which endured from 1851-64 had affected almost all the provinces in China proper, devastated its most prosperous regions, and had cost 20 to 40 million people dead. What further undermined the central power was the Nien Rebellion in the north from 1851 to 1868, the Miao Rebellion in the southwest from 1855 to 1872, and the Moslem Rebellion in the northwest from 1862 to 1878. Collectively, these are referred to as local forces that decisively affect the democratization process in the Republican era. The establishment of the republic did not imply that the Chinese were willing or able to maintain democracy. Before the 1911 Revolution, most Chinese had no preference for democratic republicanism, and those who advocated democracy treated it less as an end than as a means to national power and wealth. But the revolution ruled out the possibility of establishing a new monarchy in China and ushered in the era of republicanism. The entire Republican era was mainly shaped by the shifting balance of power between the central government and local forces. You read "Barriers to Democratization in China" in category "Papers" Since the mid–nineteenth century, foreign powers and local forces had undermined the Manchu regime. During the 1911 Revolution, the independence of provinces doomed the Qing dynasty. Since the local forces continued to threaten the new republic, a strongman was needed to rule China. Yuan Shih-kai’s fight against disintegration served national interests and commanded widespread support. But his monarchical scheme discredited him, and his death created an opportunity for the rise of warlordism. During the warlord period, the central government not only lost control of local forces, but also was manipulated by powerful warlords. Against this background, the Nationalists cooperated with the Soviet Union to achieve national unification. The rise of local forces was nothing new in China. With its vast territory, regional diversity, and traditional technology, the empire always faced the danger of division. Since the respective authorities of central and local governments were not clearly defined, the central government might have too much or too little power. On balance, the former was a lesser evil than the latter. While rational rulers had little intention to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs, the lack of legitimacy motivated local satraps to maximize their profits. The Chinese fear of local forces appeared unwarranted in the eyes of foreigners, but it constituted a self-fulfilling prophecy. Idealizing a unitary system, many Chinese leaders would resort to violence and war for the sake of national unification. Accordingly, the fear of local forces led to war, which in turn justified people’s original fear. If the establishment of the new republic had little to do with the Chinese people’s democratic conviction, partisan conflict, domestic turmoil, and civil wars in the Republican era made the Chinese disillusioned with democracy. Indeed, democracy does not necessarily weaken state power, and no real democracy was put into practice in China. But there is no denying that the early phase of democratization tends to unleash divisive forces. Through legitimating diverse interests democracy risks undermining the central power. Historical examples abound. A weak confederation followed the American Revolution. Fortunately, the founding fathers opted for a federal system, which struck a balance between central and local powers. Like many other countries, post-Revolution China experienced chaos and civil wars. The Revolution was intended to strengthen state power, but contributed to its further decline. The painful experience in the Republican era convinced the Chinese that a weak and divisive country needed a strong government, and that dictatorship represented a lesser evil than anarchy. III. World System and Democracy All countries have been dragged into the world system in the contemporary times. Unfortunately, this foreign system is unbeneficial to weaker countries and a monster that is beyond their control. It is no exaggeration, as Toynbee (1969) declares, to say that their modern history is one of their responses to foreign challenges. Before the end of World War II, China was one of the disadvantaged countries having deplorable status in the effect of world system’s adversity to democratization processes. Without the modern world system, democratization might not have become an issue in China. However, such a system militated against the process of democratization in the Nationalist era in several ways. First, the nature of the world system was undemocratic, if not antidemocratic. What characterized this system was power politics and capitalism. The former treated might as right; the latter sought profits and ignored equality. To survive in such a world required a strong state, but not necessarily a democratic one. Given China’s low status in the world, the Chinese desired wealth and power rather than democracy. In fact, the Chinese accepted democracy, less because they embraced the value itself than because they saw it as a method to strengthen the state power. Second, liberal democracy was less attractive than it is today. Internal disturbance and foreign threats in 1930s provided the best justification for dictatorship. No wonder that the Nationalist government and many Chinese intellectuals found dictatorship both necessary and desirable. Third, the Japanese aggression made the Chinese democratization almost irrelevant. Indeed, the Sino-Japanese War facilitated partisan cooperation, stimulated Chinese nationalism, and helped democratize the world system. But amid foreign aggression, national survival took precedence over the call for democracy and human rights. Equally important, the war catapulted the Communists into formidable power and exacerbated socioeconomic problems the Nationalists had never been able to handle. As a result, a democratic solution to China’s political, economic, and social problems became difficult, if not impossible. Lastly, the Cold War system affected Chinese political development. The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II and the expansion of socialism into East Europe boosted the reputation of socialism in comparison with liberal democracy. Both superpowers wanted to increase their own influence in China and sided with either the Nationalists or the Communists. It was no exaggeration to say that the evolution of the world system made possible the Communist triumph. IV. Socialist Values and Democracy Although the Mao era did well in promoting socioeconomic equality and deserved credit for encouraging mass participation, socialist China did not qualify as democracy as we know it. The one-party rule excluded the possibility for citizens to select rulers. Civil and political rights were ignored, if not flagrantly violated. The house-registration system and class label contravened the principles of liberty and equality. Millions suffered from political persecution. Even among the party itself, powerful struggles were frequent and cruel. What was worse, the Communists did not deliver on their own material promise. Living standards in Maoist China barely increased. In explaining the lack of democracy in China, one cannot ignore the role of Mao. It was Mao who hastened the socialist transformation, led the AntiRightists Campaign, initiated the Great Leap, encouraged the people’s communes, reversed the sensible guidelines of the Eighth Congress, and launched the Cultural Revolution. Without him, Chinese socialism would have taken different shape. But even without him, there would have been little chance for socialist China to be democratic. Authors like Berger (1993) and Almond (1991) believe that â€Å"the reality is that although countries with market economies have not necessarily been democratic, all democracies have coexisted with market economies†. Advocates of socialism see no contradiction between socialism and democracy. Ralph Miliband, for example, maintains that â€Å"socialist democracy would embody many of the features of liberal democracy, including the rule of law, the separation of powers, civil liberties, political pluralism, and a vibrant civil society, but it would give them much more effective meaning. It would seek the democratization of the state and of society at all levels (Miliband p. 117). This theoretical possibility has not yet translated into reality. C. B. MacPherson is more sophisticated in arguing that although existing socialist countries do not guarantee political freedom, this does not imply that socialism inevitably conflicts with democracy. He attributes the socialist failure in this respect to three specific factors. According to MacPherson (1973), â€Å"socialist countries were established in underdeveloped countries; they faced the hostility of Western powers; and their birth in revolution or civil war entailed the restriction of freedom. † The conflict between socialism and democracy cannot merely be explained by historical circumstances, but should be explained by the nature of both socialist revolution and the socialist system. By aiming at abolishing private property, socialist revolution inevitably invites the strongest opposition from all ruling and propertied classes. As a result, socialists have to rely on violence to achieve their objective. Moreover, many scholars, like Belden (1949) and Talmon (1960) find the socialist preference for collective over individual rights to be at the root of totalitarianism. As early as 1848, Tocqueville stated that â€Å"democracy extends the sphere of individual freedom; socialism restricts it. Democracy attaches all possible value to each man; socialism makes each man a mere agent, a mere number. Democracy and socialism have nothing in common but one word: equality. But notice the difference: as quoted in Hayek (1972) that â€Å"while democracy seeks equality in liberty, socialism seeks equality in restraint and servitude. † The dictatorship of the proletariat may intend to serve the vast majority of the people, but it bodes ill for democracy and human rights. Lenin defines dictatorship as â€Å"nothing more or less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force† (Lenin p. 353). Socialists’ emphasis on class character ignores humanity and individuality, and their call for class struggle damages the social fabric. By dehumanizing class enemies, they tolerate and even extol the abuse of human rights. Not least of all, even if socialist rulers are well intentioned, a socialist economy provides the best pedestal for despotism. Public ownership and planned economy enable an all-powerful state to control people’s livelihood, to limit their freedom, and to foster their passivity and fear. V. Economic Development and Democracy Deng Xiaoping’s Era Deng’s reform policy was less political democratization than economic development. Nevertheless, close relations between these two processes determined that he had an important role to play in the process of democratization (Shambaugh 1995). Economic development and political democratization are both desirable, but they sometimes compete and even conflict with each other. Deng’s preference for economic development over political democratization was understandable. Human beings are more economic animals than political ones. Democracy appeals less to poor people in poor countries, and Deng’s political liberalization further decreased the Chinese desire for democracy. Deng first instituted the responsibility system in the countryside and later abolished the commune system. At the same time, he did his best to integrate China into the outside world. The success in rural reform shifted Deng’s attention to urban reform. Despite its limitations, the economic reform increased the people’s living standard, boosted the private sector, substituted a market economy for a planned economy, and internationalized the Chinese economy. All these had positive impacts on democratization, because they reduced the state power over the society, expanded an autonomous economic realm, decreased the elite’s interest in seeking political power, and motivated better-off and better-educated people to demand more freedom and rights. Economic reforms, however, could not be deepened without political reform. Twice Deng wanted to institute political reforms, but they fell short of expectations. Deng never embraced liberal democracy. For him, democracy represented a means to economic development. When it jeopardized stability and unity, it would be abandoned. But Deng’s political reform received less credit than it deserves. Elections were permitted at local levels. Legal reforms moved China closer to the rule of law. With his administrative reform, old cadres gradually gave way to new technocrats. Although the Chinese did not enjoy positive freedom to participate in government affairs, they were granted negative freedom in their social and economic life. In short, Deng’s political reform represented a change in system rather than a change of system, and was characterized not by democratization but by liberalization and institutionalization. Deng’s economic reform was a two-edged sword, providing more legitimacy to the Communist rule, and causing social unrest and public protests. The 1989 Tiananmen Incident reflected and reinforced the legitimacy crisis. The mass protests originated from people’s dissatisfaction with their economic situations and social injustice, but did not mean that they wanted to overthrow Communist rule. Although the repression temporarily stabilized the situation, the legitimacy crisis became much severer. Like most authoritarian rulers, Deng had no choice but to rely on further economic development to regain legitimacy. Since then, Chinese leaders and people have followed the East Asian model, putting development before democratization. Conclusion All of the above factors presented are apparently legitimate and convincing when it comes to the realities happening in China. These barriers are enough to provide answers to the issue of China democratization. This presentation provides knowledge with such potential factors and significantly deepens our knowledge of the nature of democratization process in a selected country. References Almond, Gabriel. â€Å"Capitalism and Democracy,† in PS: Political Science and Politics. September 1991: pp. 467–74. Belden, Jack. China Shakes the World. New York: Harper, 1949: p. 504. Berger, Peter. â€Å"The Uncertain Triumph of Democratic Capitalism,† in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited. Ed. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993: p. 3. Hayek, Friedrich. The Road to Serfdom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972: p. 25. Lenin, â€Å"A Contribution to the History of the Question of the Dictatorship. † in Collected Works, 31 (n. d. ): p. 353. MacPherson, C B. Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973: pp. 151–52. Miliband, Ralph. â€Å"The Socialist Alternative,† in Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited. Ed. Diamond and Plattner, p. 117. Rummel, R J. China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder since 1900. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991. Shambaugh, David, ed. Deng Xiaoping: Portrait of a Chinese Statesman. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Talmon, Jacob. The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy. New York: Praeger, 1960. How to cite Barriers to Democratization in China, Papers

Revisiting the Error in Studies of Cognitive Errors

Question: Write a summary on revisiting the Error in studies of cognitive errors? Answer: The given article has been a real eye opener for a person like me who has always been a staunch believer of logic. While I always assumed without question that it is logic only which is objective and above linguistic and semantic barriers, the claims made in the article clearly question the underlying objectivity of logic as an all pervasive judgement tool. The article relates logic with human perception and since in perception there are always judgement errors due to the innate subjectivity, hence it also logically leads to subjectivity in logic which is disturbing to some extent. This is primarily because something (logic) which I have assumed to be infallible and open to interpretation is essentially a subjective phenomenon which depends on the circumstances and perception. The concept of good judgement errors is also engaging especially with the example of Post-It as it aims to establish that judgement errors are all too pervasive and thus need to be better understood. The author has also questioned the link of logic with rationality and in this manner questioned the relationship which I have innately assumed to be true because of the empirical instances regarding of the co-existence of the two. Further using data, the author also seems to question the impact of making representations differently on the way the information derived from these talks is eventually processed leading to multiple variants. Using the Wason selection task, it is apparently clear that logic is infallible and more importantly so subjective that makes it difficult to predict provided proper modelling has not been done. While the author reluctantly decides to assume that logic is free from the effect of semantics and representations but then is able to defy the same using valid arguments. The underlying cause for the same is convincing since it is attributed to the different manners in which information is processed by different human beings in different ways and hence the same information may lead to varied judgements and to call just one judgement as being correct and the remaining ones as being fallacious or dubious is a rather presumptive assumption. This idea actually appeals to me as I have seen in numerous instances when discussing something with friends, the conclusion they draw from a piece of information may be starkly different from mine but at the same time they may have an underlying logic as st rong as mine because essentially logic is a subjective thing which cannot be assumed to so objective as we see. I particular like the stance the author takes in the sense he is not against the existence of logic but the obsession with its objectivity and the biases and errors during its application. Further the obsession with logic as has been advocated by the author actually in counter-productive for the proponents of logic since during their application of logic with scant regard to the context and semantics has resulted in judgement bias being induced in their works. This is made apparent from the various interpretations of the overconfidence bias. I was surprised to learn about the better than average interpretation provided by the author as to how commonly we assume that the underlying distribution is symmetric and additionally it never comes to our mind (including mine) that the average we define for most is highly subjective and so is the final conclusion. Additionally the idea that relates overconfidence with narrow intervals and probabilistic distribution also are quite convincing and have forced me to avoid committing these errors in my life. Further the miscalibration bias introduced as interpretation of overconfidence is also intriguing since it clearly shows our casual usage of percentages and other quantification techniques without necessarily adhering to a uniform calibrating scale. Also from my experience, I now can say that we tend to over rely on these percentages and their underlying logic and subjectivity. In order to reduce these biases, the author has suggested usage of absolute risk rather than relative risk which makes sense since relative risk increases the level of subjectivity involved in the interpretation since no objective baseline is present. Further an ecological view of error is presented on the basis of findings of the research which make sense since logic should not be seen in isolation as a universal yardstick and instead it should be customised as per the content which enables it to maintain its underlying objectivity. Hence it becomes imperative to focus on the way things are presented and logic is applied so that the judgement errors are minimised.

Photo Manipulation free essay sample

Image manipulation is everywhere on are daily life. It is a type of digital art. It is a unique way to describe editing photos and adding filters and special effects to photographs in order to make an illusion or define through digital means. Photo manipulation has been commonly used to deceive or convince viewers. It can be simply a photo which colors have been converted, or a photo that has been painted over, usually they use photoshop, but there are other softwares what can we use for manipulating images, image manipulation is an art as well. Photo manipulation is done for a number of purposes. More infamously, it is for political or sensational purposes. However, photo manipulation is also an art form in its own right (www. brightclub. com). The photographs have been manipulated in darkrooms for decade. Before computers, photo manipulation was achieved by retouching with ink, paint, double exposure, piecing photos or negatives together in the darkroom, or scratching Polaroids. We will write a custom essay sample on Photo Manipulation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Airbrushes were also used, whence the term â€Å"airbrushing† for manipulation. The first recorded case of photo manipulation was in the early 1860s, when a photo of Abraham was altered using the body from a portrait of John C. Calhoun. The 1980s saw the advent of digital retouching with Quantel computers running Paintbox, and Scitex imaging workstations being used professionally Silicon Graphics computers running Barco Creator became available in the late 1980s which, alongside other contemporary packages, were effectively replaced in the market by Adobe Photoshop (wikipedia).

The Working Roles of Animals Essays

The Working Roles of Animals Essays The Working Roles of Animals Essay The Working Roles of Animals Essay Animals in the media Animals have been used in the media for many years as they catch the eye of the viewer. Animals which are used in advertisements usually don’t have any or much relevance to the products being advertised. An example of this is the adverts for Dulux Paint, which uses an Old English Sheep dog in their adverts. They have used this breed of dog in their adverts since 1961 because this breed of dog has been used for so many years people associate it with the Dulux Company. The adverts catch people’s attention and as the dog has no relevance to paint products and therefore people will discuss the adverts. Another example of animals having no relevance to the product in which they are being advertised is the Andrex adverts, they use Labrador puppies in their adverts for toilet paper. When the adverts first came out, Golden Labrador puppies became extremely in demand. However some of the people who were buying the puppies had done little to no research about the dog. The appeal of owning a Labrador was having a small, cute dog. However many owners didn’t realise the size that they would grow to, many owners then re-homed them as they grew larger. However, there are exceptions to this where the animals are relevant to the product being advertised. These adverts are usually for pet products and rescue centres. Recue centres use abandoned looking animals in their adverts, which is an emotive technique. Another example of animals being used relevantly in adverts is pet products, such as Iam’s or Pedigree. They show the animals which the product is for. They use cute animals which the public find appealing. Many adverts portray animals inaccurately; this causes people to believe that the images which are shown are a true reflection of the animal, as they have little or no knowledge of how the animal behaves. This may result in people potentially buying dangerous pets. This can be harmful to the owner or the animal and can result in abandonment. Animals which are portrayed as unpleasant, scary or dangerous can be in danger when people assume animals are worse than they are from seeing them on television. A good example of this is ‘Harry Potter’, where spiders are shown to be dangerous and scary. This causes people to have a higher fear of the animals, this can also develop into phobias, which may result in people hurting or killing animals. Another good example of where animals are portrayed to be much more vicious than they actually are is in the film ‘Jaws’. Great white sharks are perceived to be human killers and go out of their way to hunt humans whereas in reality the chance of being killed by a shark is less than 1 in 264. 1 million (1). Films also promote animals, implying that they would be good pets. In the film ‘101 Dalmatians’ many breeds of dogs are perceived as being extremely intelligent and easy to care for. This causes people to purchase them without doing the correct research and easily become overwhelmed with the responsibility of caring for a dog. Animals in sports The most popular sports involving animals are horse racing, dog racing and angling. Many people find pleasure and excitement in racing and betting on animals, it creates enjoyment for owners, trainers and spectators. A large part of racing is when people gamble on the race. This will generate money for the owners and trainers of the animals as well as the book makers and the people who place the winning bets. Television will provide a source of income and promote the sport. People may also watch the races and place bets at their local Bookies. The animals which win the most races, are the most successful and will be highly valued for breeding. This helps to ensure good offspring for racing. Race horses will usually be spoilt and have the best quality of life to ensure that they are the fittest they can possibly be for racing. However, Greyhounds may be starved and beaten before races. Starving the dogs may provoke them to run faster to try and catch the ‘rabbit’ because their natural instincts kick in. Some owners/trainers may be more concerned with the financial gain than the animals’ welfare. As a result animals may be harmed during training. This also means that animals that are not fit enough to race may be abandoned, rehomed or destroyed. Animals may also be killed during racing as a result of injuries. Angling is very popular in the UK. Live bait is usually used to attract the fish but dead bait or artificial lures can be used instead. There are different types of angling including coarse, game and sea. The advantages of angling include the financial gain for manufacturers, dealers, charter skippers and the owners of the lakes and rivers where fishing takes place. The water quality in the lakes and rivers has greatly improved over recent years to benefit the stocks which also improve the quality of the fish’s life and the underwater ecosystem. Many of the fish are returned to the lake or river in which they came. There are also disadvantages with angling. Fish will become stressed and physically injured through being captured and handled. Even when the fish are returned to lake/river, they may not always survive due to the shock. Careless anglers have been known to spread disease within the lakes and rivers. Alien species have also been introduced to the ecosystem which shall compete with the native species. Animal fighting is illegal in the UK as well as other countries. Animals which are used to fight include bulls, cocks, dogs, fish, as well as badger and bear baiting. There are no advantages in this for the animals however some people get pleasure and money from this particular sport. The dogs are mistreated and starved so they become more aggressive. All animals involved in fighting suffer and many die from injury and infections to wounds received. The survivors to the fight will not receive the veterinary treatment that they require; therefore the healing process will be long and painful. Animals in work Animals have been used for helping disabled people and in working situations for many years. Guide dogs are given to the blind or extremely visually impaired people so that they find it easier to partake in everyday life. The dogs are trained to watch out for cars and objects that the owner may walk into, the dog will be able to guide them away from danger. Dogs can also be specially trained to help the disabled by opening doors, retrieving medicines and food. They can also be trained to alert help if the owner is injured or is unconscious. Some dogs can be trained to detect oncoming epileptic fits and can therefore warn the owner before a seizure occurs. Animals can also be used in a farming environment. The dogs which are commonly used are Border Collies, they are used to herd animals into a group. They are extremely intelligent and can learn commands by whistling and speech easily. They are trained to know the difference between herding left and right, they are also usually trained from a young age and are used until they are old. Dogs such as Spaniels can be used as gun dogs, this is where a shooting team shoots down birds and the dog will retrieve it unharmed. Horses were used to plough fields, gather sheep and cattle and transporting goods. However, they have now been replaced by machines. Animals in commercial use Animals can be used for their meat or for the products they produce. Chickens are used for their eggs until they can’t produce anymore, then they are killed for their meat. Battery farms keep chickens in cruel conditions, they will sometimes be force fed and have their beaks cut off to avoid pecking other chickens in the overcrowded conditions. Free range chickens however, are kept in good conditions with lots of room to run around. Cows are used for their milk, which can be turned in to yogurts and cheese; meat and their skin, which is used to make leather. Animals can also be used for medical testing as well as the testing of cosmetics. Many animals are put through stressful situations whilst being tested on. Medical testing can include testing drugs on animals for humans. However, animals have a different anatomy to humans and what may be harmful to them may be good for humans. For example, rabbits will die from taking Penicillin whereas it is beneficial to humans. Testing cosmetics on animals is needless as there are alternative methods to testing products. It’s not as common as it used to be, however, it does still happen. Products that don’t test on animals often publicise it as it’s an effective selling point.

The Beginnings of Race, Culture, and Sexuality in Colonialism Essay

The Beginnings of Race, Culture, and Sexuality in Colonialism - Essay Example In terms of Foucaults argument, we can see that as a modern society, we still consider certain topics such as discussions about sex, a taboo topic and therefore, should not be discussed in public. Pretty much like it was for most couples during the Victorian era. We still live by the mindset that children should not be allowed to hear sexual discussions simply because the children are not having sex. But these days, the children are exposed early on to the topic of sexuality and gender. Yet we refuse to let them partcipate in the discussion because we have managed to carry over the Victorian mindset throughout the generations, culminating in the taboo discussion of our modern era. It is however nice to see that just like in the Victorian era, there are quite a number of 21st century experts who are opting to help open the minds of people pertaining to the matters or gender, race, and sexuality as it applies to the 21st century generation. The link between the Victorian era beliefs pertaining to the morality and virtue of the society still exists in our era. However, we are slowly coming out of this recessive argument in order to create a deeper understanding of sexuality in terms of the sexual act and its relation to gender role acceptance. With over three centuries of social transformation, I will have to say that we have move quite slowly and as such, have a society whose beliefs about race, culture, and sexuality during colonial times can still find itself going strong. We are still held back by the Victorian era beliefs that any discussion pertaining to sexuality, race, and gender must be addressed within the relationship of the couple rather than openly discussing it in order to achieve an acceptable end result. The Victorian era represented a time of going back to the privacy and elegance of previous eras. Prior to this era, our society was openly crude and under educated, characteristics which, at the time proved to be beneficial to creating a more mature society where no topic was taboo and cultural sensitivity began to find its footing. By bringing the sense of privacy into the discussion and requiring society to become more respectable by setting ground rules for certain discussions, we unwittingly set the standards by which our modern day society works. In fact, the experiences of Victorian era society could be considered to be a throwback to the time of Christopher Colombus when women were seen as the mother of the planet. A cosmic breath from whom the infant males yearn to feed on her warmth and love. This era fed the imagination of the people with open images of men and women cavorting in sexual pleasure pretty much similar to the era before the Victorian dawn. This was the era of t he porno - tropic traditions that lay the basis and foundation for the pornographic minds and stories that now exist. With women of the era being portrayed as more sexually active and needy than men, we can see that very little has changed in our modern times when considering the story basis for most female sexual fantasies as worked out in various forms of modern

Problem with zoo animal welfare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Problem with zoo animal welfare - Essay Example Isolating the two smaller male animals is not the solution for avoiding the others from getting the coughing and weight loss. The veterinarian enclosed the animals in the four-hectare forested area with the intentions of saving the other animals from getting the disease. At the time the two animals spent in the forested enclosure, the animals felt comfortable, out of fear and panic. This change of environment and comfort gain resulted to the increased weight and fast recovery for the animals. Consequently, the veterinarian had the misconceptions that she solved the problem and took the animals back to the display pen. Little did she know that the root cause of the coughing and weight loss was the environment by which the animals were exposed. Fear aggression refers to a famous and common class of animal feline aggression. A high percentage of llamas inherit the shy gene, which resulted to their aggression once they face frightening environments. For instance, poor socialization can result in a fear aggression where punishing the animals make the situation worse. Llamas might develop a fear of individuals, odors, certain noises, other animals, places, and end up reacting with aggression. There are several solutions for solving panic and fear in llamas. The veterinarian can check the reactive distance and the tolerance level of the llamas. For instance, the animals might be comfortable in any environment as long as the scary/frightening animal or people stay some six feet away while on the contrary reacts with panic and fear at five feet. ... Concern 2 Isolating the two smaller male animals is not the solution for avoiding the others from getting the coughing and weight loss (Tolin, 2012). The veterinarian enclosed the animals in the four-hectare forested area with the intentions of saving the other animals from getting the disease. At the time the two animals spent in the forested enclosure, the animals felt comfortable, out of fear and panic. This change of environment and comfort gain resulted to the increased weight and fast recovery for the animals (McEwan, 2006). Consequently, the veterinarian had the misconceptions that she solved the problem and took the animals back to the display pen. Little did she know that the root cause of the coughing and weight loss was the environment by which the animals were exposed. Now, what should the veterinarian do to solve the problem of panicky and fearful behavior? Fear aggression refers to a famous and common class of animal feline aggression. A high percentage of llamas inheri t the shy gene, which resulted to their aggression once they face frightening environments (Tolin, 2012). For instance, poor socialization can result to fear aggression where punishing the animals make the situation worse. Llamas might develop fear of individuals, odors, certain noises, other animals, places, and end up reacting with aggression. There are several solutions for solving panic and fear in llamas. The veterinarian can check the reactive distance and the tolerance level of the llamas. For instance, the animals might be comfortable in any environment as long as the scary/frightening animal or people stay some six feet away while on the contrary reacts with panic and fear at five feet (McEwan,

Chronic illness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Chronic illness - Essay Example As a continuum, palliative care addresses the physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs of the patient and family which cannot be handled by one single agency lest it would cause fragmentation of care. It therefore follows multidisciplinary/interdisciplinary (integrative) care is the backbone of palliative care. With the integration of inputs from various disciplines in accordance with stage of the disease progression, pain and other symptoms, psychological state of patient and family, social and practical requirements and available resources, palliative care becomes a multifaceted care with the involvement of primary care and specialist doctors, nursing staff, social worker and many others in a coordinated manner ensuring continuity of care (Mitra & Vadivelu, 2013, p. 17). Thus, palliative care has been defined as the patient and family-centered one seeking to optimize their quality of life by treating their suffering which includes anticipation and prevention of the suffe ring by addressing their â€Å"physical, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual needs† (NCP, 2013, p. 12) throughout the continuum of illness â€Å"ensuring patient autonomy, access to information and choice† (NCP, 2013, p. ... e, its physical aspects, psychological and psychiatric aspects, social aspects, spiritual, religious and existential aspects, cultural aspects, care at the end of life and ethical and legal aspects. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 2010 (PPACA) also has mandatory provisions for both hospice and curative care under Medicaid or Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). It emerges therefore that philosophy and delivery of palliative care has the following characteristics. 1. Provision of care through coordination by an interdisciplinary team. 2. Care needs are determined by collaboration and communication among the patients, families, palliative and non-palliative care providers. 3. Concurrent availability of services along with curative or life-prolonging care. 4. Provision of support to patient and family throughout the period of illness, dying process, and after death (NCP, 2013) The NCP guidelines were revised in 2009 and 2013. The ten year working of the NCP has witnessed 47 % increase in the number of hospice programs and 148 % increase in non-hospice palliative care programs. It has been reported that in the United States about 1,059,000 deaths out of 2,513,000 deaths occurred under the care one of over 5,000 hospices in the year 2011. That is, 46 % of deaths have been under the care of the hospices. It is also claimed that hospices help reduce Medicare program expenditures. One study reveals that cost for the terminal year of life was reduced by an average $ 2309 per patient under the care of hospice. (NCP, 2013). Integrative care Authors interchangeably use the terms â€Å"interdisciplinary† and â€Å"multidisciplinary† but they do not mean the same though they represent contributions from variety of disciplines for individual patient care.

Framing News on Foreign Countries: Media Interests

Framing News on Foreign Countries: Media Interests Framing news on foreign countries: Media Interests and Motivations. Analyzing 10 yrs of US and UK newspaper editorials on Venezuela. 1)INTRODUCTION Media organizations are essential in international affairs in terms of their important role in providing information to the public.[3] The question has often been whether the Media frames news in the context of the national interest of the host country, for example. Whether they reflect official position without challenging them or rather influence national interest objectives by putting pressure on politicians. The Medias interest and other motivating factors are essential for understanding how editorials for instance are framed. Lacking in the study of Media framing is the application to bilateral relations. This study would attempt to add that dimension to the numerous researches on the Media in international affairs. It would analyze editorials by four prominent newspapers in the United States and the United Kingdom on issues concerning Venezuela. The aim is to find the likely motivating factors when it comes to framing news on foreign countries For many countries the media represents an important window to the international world. Patched knowledge on foreign issues would be close to a reality without a source of information about what happens elsewhere in the world, made available by the media. In democratic countries in particular, the reliance on the media for foreign news might be as important as the quest for local news. Images of foreign countries, issues and happenings in a particular country abroad are likely to be influenced by the media to a much larger scale when impressions are created of a healthy or strained bi-lateral relations, for instance. Due to factors such as cultural assumptions and political beliefs, it is believed that news carves out images and impressions of the world some of which are preferred over other images.[4] The media, both electronic and print are a major component of the democratic processes in several countries. The media has often been referred to, in many countries, as an important branch of the government with roles from functioning as the main political informant'[7] There has been several publications on issues of Media and Government relations by several authors. For instance, in the scope of international relations and communications, there have been books published on the issue of how the media works in or out of line with foreign policy or the national interest. The debate has been whether or not the media is likely to support the national interest of the country in which it operates in relation to other countries(as the theory of Manufacturing Consent depicts)[9]. Either option makes foreign events relevant to the media. On the whole the media is believed to reflect social consensus.[15] There may be variations in the nature of the Media depending on the region or country of operation. A media in a democratic country may be freer than those in a non-democratic country so news coverage, media culture and ethics could vary. In this study, a section of the Media in two democratic countries would be analyzed in terms of their positions on issues in a third country(Venezuela). What would be of interest to this study, as mention earlier, would be the factors that would be most highlighted in the accounts of these editorials. It may bring about issues of objectivity and latent Media interests or the interests of the consumers of the news content. In the US for example, the Media is often said to domesticate foreign news. The themes represented in news in the US are those which often have some relevance to American interests.[17] Thus, how the media frames news is largely important for understanding the positions they yield to and their response to certain foreign events. In issues of national interest and in relation to bilateral relations, it would be important to know how the media in different countries frame news on events in countries abroad. 2) LITERATURE REVIEW NEWS FRAMING Entman, (1993) suggests that the concept of framing could be studied as a feature of a political discourse or as an instrument applied by the Media in making news.[19] And by extension, Media analysis or news analysis would deserve a look at the concept of news framing. Framing is, the process by which a communication source constructs and defines a social or political issue for its audienceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?.[23] Framing theory is also applicable to Media analysis. Media frames as explained by Entman (1991: 7), are attributes of news itself.[24] In a broad sense, frames are regarded as persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation, and presentation, and as selection, emphasis, and exclusion, by which symbol handlers routinely organize discourse, whether verbal or visual.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?.[27] Tuchman showed how framing as a process theory works. And that the routine procedures used by newsmakers, direct news frames in a particular way. She argues that these procedures continually help showcase certain places and ideas, while consistently closing off and blocking inquiry into others.[29] Entman (1993: 52) helped refine the scope of the definition given to news framing. He established that by the definition of news frame, frames could be seen as a process that defines problems à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" determine what a causal agent is doing with what costs and benefits, usually measured in terms of common cultural values; diagnose causes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" identify the forces creating the problem; make moral judgments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" evaluate causal agents and their effects; and suggest remedies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" offer and justify treatments for the problems and predict their likely effects.[30] Entman, (1991:7) also showed that frames used by the media are often captured in the keywords, metaphors, concepts, symbols and visual images in news narratives. He stresses the point that one way is which news framing works is through repetition which is important for Media news framing because news narratives, usually dependent on frames, are meant to direct attention to certain ideas, while excluding certain other ideas.[33] It has also been established that Framing involves processes of inclusion and exclusion as well as emphasis.'[38] Framing also has the ability to make consumers of news accept and adopt some symbolic themes and values.[39] While the process of selectively and emphasis is carried out by the newsmakers, those for whom a particular news is meant, are also likely to be predisposed to understanding and interpreting information in a selective way. Framing has also been explained to be the process of placing information into a context of preconscious symbolism. [43] The framing process employed by the Media is regarded as key to shaping both the publics and decision-makers knowledge, image and understanding of the world.[49]. Perhaps a perfect definition of the concept of framing in relation to the print media is the fact that, a frame is a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a connection among them. The frame suggests what the controversy is about and the essence of the issue'[53] One of the significant areas in relation to framing of news and Media positioning is Foreign Policy. Assessments of the response of the media to foreign issues is largely based on a critical analysis of how the media operates or how a particular section of the media churns out news or editorials, for example the position that major newspapers take on certain foreign issues. In a way how it sets the agenda for government or public reactions. Both agenda setting and framing have been identified in news framing literature as ways in which the media can influence policy making and public opinion.[57] There has been some convergence on how framing analysis can be carried out, according to the literature. Two approaches of framing analysis has evolved over the years. The Inductive approach and the Deductive approach. The latter has been proven more scientific than the former. The Deductive approach organizes the framing analysis based on pre-outlined broader frames.[59] There has also been an attempt by some authors to group frames along certain distinctions. Frames could be grouped under issue-specific frames which deal with particular issues in detail and generic frames which cover broader themes found in different settings.[61] One issue raised by some authors on framing is how the Media treat sources. When elite sources to news are relied on by journalists for example, they may in a way be a channel for promoting the views and opinions of the political order or the elites to the larger audience[63] Most of the literature also agree that the location of a news story gives it much weight in terms of the perceived influence on the newspapers readership and how important the issues are to them. It also demonstrates the importance the media attaches to that particular issue or event.[67] In all, Media scholars have studied Framing theory as either theories of Effects and Process. By Framing as effects theory, media scholars have studied the influence that news frames have on audiences while studies on framing as a process theory have addressed how news content is created and modified in certain ways considering the factors that influence the carving of news in a particular way. [68] . Although the framing of news is important to the coverage given to events and issues, there are other elements or factors that influence the framing of news in itself have to be identified.[72] This study would turn the spot light on the wide array of all the other factors that may help explain why news is framed in a particular way. As pointed out earlier, some literature on the Media have suggested that the sources that the Media relies go an extent to make the news themselves. In other words, Organizations with more resources, or that have more credibility in the eyes of journalists, are more likely to become regular news sources, and thus shape which issues (agenda-setting) and which perspectives (frames) dominate the news.[74] Some Media scholars are of the opinion that the ideal state of Media Objectivity is far fetched. Some are of the view that there is no fundamentally non-ideological, apolitical, non-partisan news gathering and reporting system. Since there may be dispute over objectivity and news without bias, the concept of framing becomes important to analyzing the frames used in making news.[77] While journalists may dispute these assertions, it is believed that news content is not an objective entity, independent of political, social, ideological or sociopsychological influences than mere information.[80] As stated before, the Media often depicts the Governments position in respect to interests and issues especially in relation to other countries. There has been the suggestion that the Medias position is based on national values, national interest and cultural values of their host countries.[82] The Media is likely to succumb to the views of governments because the latters position on issues is seen as an overriding common good transcending the specific interests of parties, factions, and other entities smaller than the nation as a whole.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[84] The problem with the concept of framing is that it lacks clear conceptual definitions and a comprehensive statement to guide research.[85] Yet these challenges would make it important for more research into factors that influence news framing. The extent to which consumers of news perceive foreign leaders in either a positive or negative light is dependent on how framing is carried out.[86] The latter point might be important to understand how the reading-public of the four sampled newspapers are likely to perceive the leadership in Venezuela. Most of the research done on news framing have largely gone in the way of foreign policy research. A few have looked at news framing in relation to another country with a lengthy time range while Media response and framing on various issues are measured and analyzed. The study hopes to add to the already existing research on news framing in this regard. 3) Proposed Research Questions Research Question 1 :What is the tone of coverage on Venezuela in U.S. and U.K. editorials? Do the two groups of newspapers differ in tone? Research Question 2: Which frames dominated in the overall coverage and was there a significant difference between the two countries in terms of the frames used? Research Question 3: Which issues dominated the overall coverage country-wise? Research Question 3: Do positions on issues covered reflect National Interest of the two countries? Research Question 4: Do these editorials rely on government sources in arriving at opinions and conclusions? Research Question 5: Which issues are most prominent in all the coverage? Research Question 6: Do the editorials lean towards a kind of political or economic ideology? 4) VARIABLES The variables for this study would be the following 1 Independent -Tone of coverage and framing in UK editorials -Tone of coverage and framing in US editorials -Most highlighted issues 2 Dependent -The interests of the UK(economic, political, other) -The interests of the US (economic, political, other) -The ideology of the paper 5) Proposed Research Hypothesis 1 There is no difference in tone between the two groups of newspapers. 2 The level of interest given to highlighted issues between the two groups of newspapers will be the same? 3 Positioning and framing of news will depend on the interests of the host nation of the newspapers. 4 Positioning and framing of news will depend on the ideology of the host nation of the newspapers. 5 UK newspaper editorials are likely to be less critical of Venezuela because of better bi- lateral relations. 6 US newspaper editorials are likely to be more critical of Venezuela because of worse bi-lateral relations. 6) METHODOLOGY Method The study on these editorials would be carried out using quantitative content analysis to assess qualitative data published by the four newspapers. Content analysis is defined as a research technique that involves measuring a content( in this case, news frames) in a random sampling of some form of communication( in this case, editorials). The basic assumption implicit in content analysis is that an investigation of messages and communication will allow some insight into the people who receive these messages'[87]. However the use of content analysis in this study would be to capture the frames used in the sampled editorials and what informs interests in issues and not what the consumers of such news perceive or how they react to these messages. One advantage of content analysis is that unlike other research methods where the researcher can easily influence the outcome of the research, it offers mediated communication to be rather studied rather than the behavior of people which may be difficult to analyze. Additionally it provides numbers and figures which can be quantified to secure likely viable assessments.[88] Admittedly, the use content analysis technique also brings to the fore issues concerning the representativeness of the samples used, the adequate definition of issues, difficulties with measuring units to be analyzed and coder reliability issues.[89] A conversion of coded values into quantitative statistical data would be made after the content analysis. Population The population of this study would be all editorials on Venezuela within the ten year period by high circulating newspapers in the US and the UK. The assumption is that editorials from newspapers with a relatively high number of circulations, may have been read by a significant number of people or may have reached a wider audience or a politically responsive section of the public. The study would not be concerned with gauging public reactions but in the frames used themselves. Yet high circulation newspapers offer a good basis for selection in the sample. Sample The type of sampling used in selecting editorials is Criterion Sampling .Editorials which will make up the sample are those with references made to the words VENEZUELA and HUGO CHAVEZ and political and economic issues related to these terms. A retrieval of the editorials from the search engine LEXIS-NEXIS has already been carried out using the following terms: VENEZUELA, HUGO CHAVEZ and EDITORIAL for the US newspaper database. For the LEXIS NEXIS -UK database, editorials were retrieved using the search terms VENEZUELA, HUGO CHAVEZ and LEADING ARTICLE. Editorials not focusing on these issues or not focusing on issues of political relevance were dropped from the sample ,for example those focusing on say sports or those with the mere mention of these terms with no relation to relevant issues discussed. US Newspapers From an earlier assessment of the account of data on newspaper circulations by the Audit Bureau of Circulations in both the USA and the UK, the highest circulating newspaper over the 10 year period was USA TODAY with the most circulations for the said period. The WALL STREET JOURNAL (WSJ) came second with the most circulations over the period. The WSJ will however be discounted because of its orientation mostly to financial news and events. The research would be limited to newspapers which mostly deal with political news and also focuses on foreign political news in its content or publications. With these criteria, the third major political newspapers which polled the third highest number of circulations over the 10 year period was the NEW YORK TIMES (NYT). Thus editorials from the USA TODAY and the NYT will be used in the content analysis. UK Newspapers The selection criteria for the two highest Circulating newspapers in the UK however differ slightly from the basis on which the newspapers from the US were selected. THE DAILY TELEGRAPH and THE TIMES newspapers would be used in this study. The two newspapers averagely rank 4th and 7th in terms of circulation data according to the Audit Bureau from January 2000 to 2009. The two newspapers which ranked as the two highest-circulating newspapers for the 10 year period in the UK were THE SUN and DAILY MAIL. The two come under the category of Tabloid Newspapers and are not considered serious political newspapers. The two will not be the focus of this study. The DAILY MIRROR, DAILY STAR, and the DAILY EXPRESS ranked 3rd, 5th and 6th respectively. This study will focus on those newspapers which come under those usually termed newspapers-of- record or those which practice serious journalism. Of the newspapers under this category,THE GUARDIAN and THE TIMES had averagely, the highest number of circulations during the 10 year period discounting those newspapers which fall under the tabloid category. A percentage breakdown of the editorials from each newspaper is found below. The four newspapers had on average a significant circulation tally during the specified period namely from (January) 2000 to (December) 2009. Why Venezuela? Venezuela offers a good to chance to study the politics behind the news. Various perceived interests are involved in relation to the US, UK and Venezuela. The controversies have been over the stifling of democracy and civil rights, the abuse of power by President Chavez, issues over the supply of oil and what it means for the two western countries to have the economy of Venezuela in a bad shape. These factors make Venezuela a good choice and would it possible to analyze Media positioning on these issues in response to a relevant third country while factoring in bi-lateral relations. Time Period The choice of long time duration will allow for significant content analysis to be done on the editorials. Since this research would also assess government statements and positions on the issues arising from Venezuela, the time period which saw the BUSH and BLAIR administration for most of the period would offer an opportunity to compare the US and UK government responses and attitudes towards Venezuelan issues with hopefully little variation in policy change. The reasoning is that an unchanged administration or party in power is likely to have the same attitudes or reactions to foreign issues from a particular country than when the administration changes over a period of time, barring any major shift in interests and policy towards Venezuela by either country during the time period. The study will take all these changes into account in the final analysis, including the editorial responses and positioning on these issues. Coding Units Editorials will be the focal point for the coding procedures. Editorials are a good basis for this study because they often represent the view or position of the newspaper. Op-Eds and editorials with Bylines (those written by individuals and credited with names) have been excluded from the sample. The focus was to look out for editorials which have been written by the editorial board of the various newspapers and would represent a justifiable opinion or position of the newspaper itself rather than the views of individual writers. Coding Procedure The source for the editorials is the academic search engine; LEXIS-NEXIS (which stores electronic copies of newspaper articles and editorials including those that this study would be focused on). Pre-testing 4 independent coders would be used to code each editorial article according to frames created from a Pre-test which has already been carried out on two other newspapers. A pretest on The Washington Post and The Guardian newspapers has been carried out to source for appropriate categories of frames to be used in the final coding of the 141 editorials. In addition, coders could add extra categories of frames to the basic list during coding to update the original codebook. 24 editorials from the Washington Post and 54 editorials from The Guardian newspapers were retrieved with the same search words as the main sample. They all fit the same criteria. 25% of each newspapers editorial would be used in the Pre-test. The selection was done randomly. In all 19 editorials would be used for the Pre-test. Framing Variables Frames(meant for pre-test and to be modified). the problem frames, 1-the diagnostic frames( these coverage would identify a problem and assign a responsibility to someone or some other reason) 2-the prognostic frames.( here the study seeks to find an editorials solution to particular problems) the presentation frames, 1-the issue frame ( coverage on issues such as economy, oil etc) 3-the image frame.( portraying leadership, attitudes, affiliation of subjects) General tone (is the editorial positive(supportive) or negative(condemnatory))? Coder Reliability An intercoder reliability would predict the amount of agreement or correspondence among the 4 coders. Intercoder Reliability is the extent to which the different judges tend to assign exactly the same rating to each object.[90] The Intercoder reliability would be checked for the Pre-test and the main test. The formula to be used is Holstis (1969) formula. Coder agreement on each unit of analysis( i.e frames) would be calculated. Preliminary Coding Sheet for Newspaper Editorial Content Analysis(To be amended). Technical Data: Editorial Number= give in full Paper: 1= USA; 2= NY Times; 3= Daily Telegraph; 4=The Times Date: given in full Title of Editorial: given in full Page: page on which the editorial is written. Location( section of newspaper) 1= Editorials and Opinions; 2= Features; 3=Non Stated 99= other Length of words= please indicate number Is a source cited?: 1= Yes; 2= No; 99= other Source cited: please indicate Country Mentioned in affiliation to venezuela: please indicate Country Location(continent): 1= Africa 2=Antarctia 3=Asia 4 =Australia 5= Europe 6=North America 7=South America Issues linked to country referred to: please indicate Themes in the News: Theme of the editorial: 1 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the world 2 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Secondary Themes: 1= Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the world 2 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Tertiary Themes: 1 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the world 2 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Other Themes?: Please state Orientation of Editorial: 1= event-oriented 2= issue-oriented Framing of the Editorial: (A) References To Sources Domestic Sources( in US or UK) : please indicate International Sources(in Venezuela) : please indicate Other Sources: please indicate How instrumental is the source to the story: 1=very central; 2= central; 3= moderately mentioned; 4=only gets a mention (B) Character of Commentary Evaluation of Commentary: 1= very laudable; 2= favorable; 3= neutral; 4= critical; 5= abrasive; 99= other Secondary Evaluation of Commentary: 1= crusading; 2= argumentative; 3= descriptive; 4= summary; 5= cynical; 6= humorous; 7= warning/ helpful; 8= lyrical; Descriptive Characterization of President Chavez in editorials: As 1= authoritarian 2= socialist/leftist 3= populist 4= autocrat 5= strongman 6= bold 99= other ( please state) Characterization of other persons in editorials: please mention character and indicate descrption Main Discourse: Please state any significant words used: Location of word in editorial: 1= headline 2= main body 7) BIBLIOGRAPHY Althaus, Scott L. 2003. When News Norms Collide, Follow the Lead: New Evidence for Press Independence.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Political Communication, 20 Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Pri

Abuse? :: essays research papers

Abuse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to a May 2001 article in Parents magazine 67% of the American population condones spanking as a regular form of discipline. Also, 67% say they would oppose a law prohibiting spanking at home and says that only 17% would support it. According to advice columnist and family psychologist John Rosemond, â€Å"Many parents are becoming frustrated with the very weak forms of discipline du jour advocated by ‘psychologically correct’ experts. He also says â€Å"More than 90% of children raised in the 1950’s and early ’60s were spanked and we don’t go around hitting people when we don’t get our way.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While I was visiting a friend recently, she told me about her most recent visit to the doctor with her two-year-old daughter. She told me that she was trying to get her daughter ready to leave after the appointment was over and her daughter would not quit playing with the toys which were in the doctor’s office. After several minutes of struggling with her daughter to get her coat on, her daughter turned to her, said â€Å"no, mom† and then her daughter proceeded to slap her across the face. My friend put her daughter over her knee and gave her a quick swat and told her that she was not to treat her mother like that. After seeing this, a nurse came over to my friend and told her that if they ever see her hit her daughter again they would call the Department of Children and Family Services.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This situation is not all that unfamiliar to me these days. I hear of parents in similar situations almost every day and sometimes I actually see it with my own eyes. For instance, I was in Wal-Mart a few weeks ago and witnessed a woman tell a father that she was going to report him for child abuse because he grabbed his son’s arm and yelled at him for taking off and running through the store. Apparently the father had turned to look at something on the shelf and when he turned back around his son was gone and the father was paged over the store intercom to come and retrieve his son from across the store. In my opinion, that child was lucky that his father hadn’t given him a spanking right in the middle of the store. When I was a child my father would have given me a real whopper of a spanking for pulling a stunt like that in a store.